Right of resale. The holder of a copyright has control over the initial sale of their work. However once sold, the new owner can sell the copy without getting permission from the copyright holder.
Library and archival exceptions: Libraries may loan copies of books and other materials which they have purchased without getting permission, including interlibrary loan. They may also make copies for preservation purposes Note that this has gotten sticky in the case of e-books, where the vendor may restrict loaning and copying by contract.
Persons with Disabilities: Copies may be made in new formats in order to enable access by persons with disabilities, e.g. creating audiobooks from printed materials.
Teaching: Copyrighted works may be used in face-to-face and some online teaching.
In addition to the exceptions above, there is also a broad category called fair use. Fair use exections are common, but there are no hard and fast rules as to what constitutes fair use. Instead, the courts have established guidelines.